|
Multilingualism |
|
SLA
Topics SLA
Bibliography Vivian
Cook SLL and LT
|
 |
|
| Poster in Toronto |
Poster In Dublin |
|
Road sign in Quebec City
(i.e. not 'Stop' or 'Halt')
|
Placard in Geneva
|
|
|
|
Perhaps the only official bilingual
notice in London |
|
East
London Street
|
Shop in Geneva
|
|
Newcastle Street
Toronto street
|
|
London Food
Shop
|
|
Dublin
Park
|
|
London as a multilingual
city? |
|
|
|
|
|
Newcastle
notices |
|
|
|
Warning Signs in
Taipei |
|
|
|
Restaurant in
Italy |
 
|
|
Restaurants etc in Brussels |
|
|
|
 |
|
Wallsend Metro Station |
|
|
| Info on English as
an Additional Language at the National Literacy
Trust |
| For a collection of
multilingual signs go to http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Multilingualism |
Questions for bilinguals
Use:
do you use the two
languages: |
in different
situations or in the same situation? |
|
to different people or
the same people? |
|
the L1 while using the L2, e.g. by translating?
|
|
code-switching during the course of a conversation?
|
|
two mental lexicons or one? |
| Learning: |
Did you learn your two languages consecutively?
|
|
Did learning an L2 have an effect on the rest of your
education? |
| Effects: did you feel: |
social advantages or disadvantages? |
|
mental advantages or
disadvantages? |
|
L1 loss?
|
The Different Roles of Second
Languages
1. Elite bilingualism
2. Second languages for
religious use
3. Official languages and L2 learning
4. Multilingualism and
L2 learning
5. Internationalism and second languages
Goals for
Language Teaching
1. Local goals - foster an L2 within a
society
a) assimilationist language teaching - minority speakers learn the
majority language
b) transitional language teaching - minority speakers learn
to function in majority language
c) language maintenance and bilingual
language teaching - minority speakers learn to function in both languages
2.
International goals - foster an L2 for use outside the society
a)
careers that require a second language b) higher education
c) access to
research and information d) travel
3. Individual goals - develop
qualities in the learner rather than language per se
a) understanding of
foreign cultures b) understanding language itself
c) cognitive training d)
general educational values
e) learning L2 as an academic subject f) L2
learning as social change
The UK National Criteria for GCSE
in Modern Languages
1) to develop the ability to use the language
effectively for purposes of practical communication
2) to form a sound base
of the skills, language, and attitudes required for further study, work and
leisure
3) to offer insights into the language and civilisation of the
countries where the language is spoken
4) to develop an awareness of the
nature of language and language learning
5) to provide enjoyment and
intellectual stimulation
6) to encourage positive attitudes towards foreign
language learning and towards speakers of foreign languages and a sympathetic
approach to other cultures and civilisations
7) to promote learning skills of
a more general application (e.g. analysis, memorising, drawing of inferences)
References
Arnberg, L.
(1987), Raising Children Bilingually: The Pre-school Years, Multilingual
Matters
Baker, P. &
Eversley, J. (2000), Multilingual Capital, Battlebridge
Byram, M.
(1986), Minority Education and Ethnic Survival, Multilingual Matters
Cook, V.J.
(1996) Second Language Learning and Language Teaching, 2nd ed Chapter Six
Grosjean, F.
(1982), Life with Two Languages, Harvard U.P.
Harding, E.,
& Riley, P. (1986), The Bilingual Family: A Handbook for Parents,
C.U.P.
Kramsch, C.
(1993), Context and Culture in Language Teaching, OUP
Laponce, J.A.
(1987), Languages and their Territories, University of Toronto Press
Phillipson, R.
(1992), Linguistic Imperialism, OUP
Romaine, S.
(1989), Bilingualism, Blackwell, Oxford
Saunders, G.
(1982), Bilingual Children: Guidance for the Family, Multilingual Matters
Spolsky, B.
(1989), 'Maori Bilingual education and language revitalisation', J.
Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 10, 2, 89-106
Spolsky, B.
(1989), Conditions for Second Language Learning, OUP
Wardhaugh, R. (1987), Languages in Competition, Blackwell,
Oxford
Language Comparisons: The
Top Ten
| |
language |
speakers (mills) |
multi-state languages |
arms
spending |
wealth |
| 1 |
Chinese
|
1000 |
English |
43 |
English
|
Swedish
|
| 2 |
English
|
350 |
French |
28 |
Russian
|
Danish
|
| 3 |
Spanish
|
250 |
Spanish
|
21 |
Chinese |
Norweg-
ian |
| 4 |
Hindi
|
200 |
Arabic |
18 |
Arabic
|
German
|
| 5 |
Arabic
|
150 |
Portu-
guese |
7 |
German
|
Dutch
|
| 6 |
Bengali
|
150 |
German |
5 |
French
|
Icelandic |
| 7 |
Russian
|
150 |
Malay |
5 |
Spanish
|
Japanese |
| 8 |
Portu-
guese |
135 |
Italian |
3 |
Japanese |
Finnish
|
| 9 |
Japanese
|
120 |
Dutch |
3 |
Vietnam
|
Czech
|
| 10 |
German
|
100 |
Chinese |
3 |
Italian
|
Italian
|
Source: Laponce for all except native speakers from
Crystal
Questionnaire on internal uses of L2
(paper
available on web)
Score each of these on a scale
from 1 (only in L1) to 5 (only in L2
1.
Self-Organisational
-
Do you write a
shopping list in L1 or L2?
-
If you write on
your cheque stubs, do you use L1 or L2?
-
When you put
appointments in your diary, do you use L1 or L2?
-
Do you keep a
diary of what you have done in L1 or L2?
2. Mental tasks
-
When you count
things, do you use your L1 or your L2?
-
When you add up
columns of numbers, do you use L1 or L2?
-
Do you work out
sums in L1 or L2?
3. Memory tasks
-
Do you think
about days of the week in L1 or L2?
-
If you work out a
route to go somewhere, do you use L1 or L2?
-
When you try to
remember a phone number, do you use L1 or L2?
-
If you try to
remember a historical date, do you use L1 or L2?
4. Unconscious uses
-
Do you usually
dream in L1 or L2?
-
Do you sing to
yourself in L1 or L2?
-
If you talk aloud
to yourself, is it in L1 or L2?
5. Emotional
effects
-
When you are
feeling happy, do you find you use L1 or L2?
-
When you are in
pain or feeling ill, do you use L1 or L2?
-
When something
goes wrong, do you swear or exclaim in L1 or L2?
-
When you are
feeling tired, do you find you use L1 or L2?
6.
Non-communicative uses
7. Praying
8. Personal
Receptive
-
Do you listen to
the radio or watch TV in L1 or L2?
-
Do you read books
for pleasure in the L1 or the L2?
-
Do you read books
for work or study in L1 or L2?
-
Do you read
newspapers in L1 or L2?
9. Social
-
Do you write
letters to people in L1 or L2?
-
Do you talk at
home in your flat/house in L1 or L2?
-
Do you talk to
friends in L1 or L2?
-
Do you use L1 or
L2 when you go shopping?
-
Do you work or
study in L1 or L2?
-
Do you use L1 or
L2 when you visit the doctor/dentist?
-
When you speak on
the phone, do you use your L1 or L2?
-
If you write down
phone messages, do you use L1 or L2?
| |
|
L1 bias |
both L1
and
L2 |
L2 bias |
| |
|
1-3 |
4 |
5-7
|
| 1. |
self-organisation
|
31%
|
20%
|
49%
|
| 2. |
mental tasks
|
55% |
17%
|
28%
|
| 3. |
memory tasks
|
48% |
23% |
29%
|
| 4. |
unconscious uses
|
49% |
38%
|
13%
|
| 5. |
emotional effects
|
44% |
39%
|
17%
|
| 6. |
non-communicative
uses |
44% |
45% |
10%
|
| 7. |
praying
|
60% |
20% |
20%
|
| 8. |
receptive uses |
20% |
38% |
42%
|
| 9. |
social uses |
7% |
41% |
32%
|
Combined scores for 59 mixed L2 users (Cook,
1998)
to see original paper click here
Home languages of London schoolchildren
rank
language
percentage
1.
English
67.86%
2.
Bengali+Sylheti
4.51%
3.
Panjabi
3.32%
4.
Gujarati
3.19%
5.
Hindi/Urdu
2.91%
6.
Turkish
1.74%
7.
Arabic
1.23%
8. English-based
Creoles 1.20%
9.
Yoruba
1.16%
10.
Somali
0.93%
11.
Cantonese
0.77%
12.
Greek
0.71%
13. Akan (Twi (Ashanti) + Fante)
0.67%
14.
Portuguese
0.67%
15.
French
0.63%
16.
Spanish
0.61%
17.
Tamil
0.41%
18. Farsi
(=Persian)
0.37%
19.
Italian
0.28%
20.
Vietnamese
0.27%
21.
Igbo
0.22%
22. French-based Creoles
0.20%
23.
Tagalog
0.18%
24.
Kurdish
0.16%
25.
Polish
0.17%
26.
Swahili
0.12%
27.
Lingala
0.11%
28.
Albanian
0.10%
29.
Luganda
0.09%
30.
Gă
0.09%
31.
Tigrinya
0.09%
32.
German
0.09%
33.
Japanese
0.09%
34.
Serbian/Croatian
0.08%
35.
Russian
0.08%
36.
Hebrew
0.07%
37.
Korean
0.06%
38.
Pashto
0.05%
39.
Amharic
0.05%
40.
Sinhala
0.05%
The figures for English-and French-based Creoles are
unreliable and incomplete.
Source: P. Baker & J. Eversley (2000), Multilingual
Capital, Battlebridge
Ethnologue: Top 100 Languages by
Population; February 1999
|
Rank |
Language Name |
Primary Country |
Population |
|
1 |
CHINESE, MANDARIN |
China |
885,000,000 |
|
2 |
SPANISH |
Spain |
332,000,000 |
|
3 |
ENGLISH |
UK |
322,000,000 |
|
4 |
BENGALI |
Bangladesh |
189,000,000 |
|
5 |
HINDI |
India |
182,000,000 |
|
6 |
PORTUGUESE |
Portugal |
170,000,000 |
|
7 |
RUSSIAN |
Russia |
170,000,000 |
|
8 |
JAPANESE |
Japan |
125,000,000 |
|
9 |
GERMAN, STANDARD |
Germany |
98,000,000 |
|
10 |
CHINESE, WU |
China |
77,175,000 |
|
11 |
JAVANESE |
Indonesia, Java, Bali |
75,500,800 |
|
12 |
KOREAN |
Korea, South |
75,000,000 |
|
13 |
FRENCH |
France |
72,000,000 |
|
14 |
VIETNAMESE |
Viet Nam |
67,662,000 |
|
15 |
TELUGU |
India |
66,350,000 |
|
16 |
CHINESE, YUE |
China |
66,000,000 |
|
17 |
MARATHI |
India |
64,783,000 |
|
18 |
TAMIL |
India |
63,075,000 |
|
19 |
TURKISH |
Turkey |
59,000,000 |
|
20 |
URDU |
Pakistan |
58,000,000 |
|
21 |
CHINESE, MIN NAN |
China |
49,000,000 |
|
22 |
CHINESE, JINYU |
China |
45,000,000 |
|
23 |
GUJARATI |
India |
44,000,000 |
|
24 |
POLISH |
Poland |
44,000,000 |
|
25 |
ARABIC, EGYPTIAN SPOKEN |
Egypt |
42,500,000 |
|
26 |
UKRAINIAN |
Ukraine |
41,000,000 |
|
27 |
ITALIAN |
Italy |
37,000,000 |
|
28 |
CHINESE, XIANG |
China |
36,015,000 |
|
29 |
MALAYALAM |
India |
34,022,000 |
|
30 |
CHINESE, HAKKA |
China |
34,000,000 |
|
31 |
KANNADA |
India |
33,663,000 |
|
32 |
ORIYA |
India |
31,000,000 |
|
33 |
PANJABI, WESTERN |
Pakistan |
30,000,000 |
|
34 |
SUNDA |
Indonesia |
27,000,000 |
|
35 |
PANJABI, EASTERN |
India |
26,013,000 |
|
36 |
ROMANIAN |
Romania |
26,000,000 |
|
37 |
BHOJPURI |
India |
25,000,000 |
|
38 |
AZERBAIJANI, SOUTH |
Iran |
24,364,000 |
|
39 |
FARSI, WESTERN |
Iran |
24,280,000 |
|
40 |
MAITHILI |
India |
24,260,000 |
|
41 |
HAUSA |
Nigeria |
24,200,000 |
|
42 |
ARABIC, ALGERIAN SPOKEN |
Algeria |
22,400,000 |
|
43 |
BURMESE |
Myanmar |
22,000,000 |
|
44 |
SERBO-CROATIAN |
Yugoslavia |
21,000,000 |
|
45 |
CHINESE, GAN |
China |
20,580,000 |
|
46 |
AWADHI |
India |
20,540,000 |
|
47 |
THAI |
Thailand |
20,047,000 |
|
48 |
DUTCH |
Netherlands |
20,000,000 |
|
49 |
YORUBA |
Nigeria |
20,000,000 |
|
50 |
SINDHI |
Pakistan |
19,720,000 |
|
51 |
ARABIC, MOROCCAN SPOKEN |
Morocco |
19,542,000 |
|
52 |
ARABIC, SAIDI SPOKEN |
Egypt |
18,900,000 |
|
53 |
UZBEK, NORTHERN |
Uzbekistan |
18,466,000 |
|
54 |
MALAY |
Malaysia, Peninsular |
17,600,000 |
|
55 |
AMHARIC |
Ethiopia |
17,413,000 |
|
56 |
INDONESIAN |
Indonesia |
17,050,000 |
|
57 |
IGBO |
Nigeria |
17,000,000 |
|
58 |
TAGALOG |
Philippines |
17,000,000 |
|
59 |
NEPALI |
Nepal |
16,056,000 |
|
60 |
ARABIC, SUDANESE SPOKEN |
Sudan |
16,000,000 |
|
61 |
SARAIKI |
Pakistan |
15,015,000 |
|
62 |
CEBUANO |
Philippines |
15,000,000 |
|
63 |
ARABIC, NORTH LEVANTINE
SPOKEN |
Syria |
15,000,000 |
|
64 |
THAI,
NORTHEASTERN |
Thailand |
15,000,000 |
|
65 |
ASSAMESE |
India |
14,634,000 |
|
66 |
HUNGARIAN |
Hungary |
14,500,000 |
|
67 |
CHITTAGONIAN |
Bangladesh |
14,000,000 |
|
68 |
ARABIC, MESOPOTAMIAN SPOKEN |
Iraq |
13,900,000 |
|
69 |
MADURA |
Indonesia, Java, Bali |
13,694,000 |
|
70 |
SINHALA |
Sri Lanka |
13,220,000 |
|
71 |
HARYANVI |
India |
13,000,000 |
|
72 |
MARWARI |
India |
12,104,000 |
|
73 |
CZECH |
Czech Republic |
12,000,000 |
|
74 |
GREEK |
Greece |
12,000,000 |
|
75 |
MAGAHI |
India |
12,000,000 |
|
76 |
CHHATTISGARHI |
India |
10,985,000 |
|
77 |
DECCAN |
India |
10,709,800 |
|
78 |
CHINESE, MIN BEI |
China |
10,537,000 |
|
79 |
BELARUSAN |
Belarus |
10,200,000 |
|
80 |
ZHUANG, NORTHERN |
China |
10,000,000 |
|
81 |
ARABIC, NAJDI SPOKEN |
Saudi Arabia |
9,800,000 |
|
82 |
PASHTO, NORTHERN |
Pakistan |
9,685,000 |
|
83 |
SOMALI |
Somalia |
9,472,000 |
|
84 |
MALAGASY |
Madagascar |
9,398,700 |
|
85 |
ARABIC, TUNISIAN SPOKEN |
Tunisia |
9,308,000 |
|
86 |
RWANDA |
Rwanda |
9,306,800 |
|
87 |
ZULU |
South Africa |
9,142,000 |
|
88 |
BULGARIAN |
Bulgaria |
9,000,000 |
|
89 |
SWEDISH |
Sweden |
9,000,000 |
|
90 |
LOMBARD |
Italy |
8,974,000 |
|
91 |
OROMO, WEST-CENTRAL |
Ethiopia |
8,920,000 |
|
92 |
PASHTO, SOUTHERN |
Afghanistan |
8,206,000 |
|
93 |
KAZAKH |
Kazakhstan |
8,000,000 |
|
94 |
ILOCANO |
Philippines |
8,000,000 |
|
95 |
TATAR |
Russia |
8,000,000 |
|
96 |
FULFULDE, NIGERIAN |
Nigeria |
7,611,000 |
|
97 |
ARABIC, SANAANI
SPOKEN |
Yemen |
7,600,000 |
|
98 |
UYGHUR |
China |
7,595,512 |
|
99 |
HAITIAN CREOLE
FRENCH |
Haiti |
7,372,000 |