Categories of Normative Ethical Theories

Teleological Ethics   Keywords:  Purpose; consequence; result

Teleological systems of ethics attempt to define actions as intrinsically right if (a) they bring desirable consequences  or (b)   the actions or the agent are fulfilling their intrinsic purposes.

Utilitarianism is an ethical theory which, broadly speaking, defines an action as intrinsically good if it maximises pleasurable results to the majority of people affected by it.  In other words, if the action succeeds in bringing the 'greatest happiness ot the greatest number', then it is intrinsically good.  The value of the action lies, not in the act itself, but in its consequences.  Situation ethics also attempts to produce the greatest happiness in any given situation, by judging, not a course of action, but by assessing the consequences which are likely to result in each situation.   Situation ethics rests on the assumption that actions are intrinsically neither good nor bad.  They are judged solely by their consequences given the individual circumstances of each situation.  Joseph Fletcher, whose name is most associated with Situation Ethics, might have described the 'right' course of action as the most 'loving' course of action.

Natural Law deems an action as intrinsically good if it is fulfilling its natural purpose, or furthers the natural purpose or function of the agent.  It derives from the ancient Stoic belief in Logos, or the principle of right reason, which governed the world, and was recognised by all in it.  It is that which appears right and proper to humans as they exist as part of the natural world.  Cicero describes it as "one eternal and unchangeable law"  of which God is the "author".  It is universal, and transcends cultures.  It is that within humans that causes us to applaud courage and execrate cowardice, which regards human life as too precious to take lightly or illegally, and which holds up wisdom and honesty as virtues to be pursued.

We shall look at the outworking of Natural Law as it is applied within Roman Catholic teaching in another section.

Strengths of Teleological Ethical Systems

• Some teleological theories, eg utilitarianism and situation ethics invite the use of individual reason and judgement, giving some autonomy in choice of actions.
• Clearly, many people would deem an ethical theory which honours actions which are aimed at maximising pleasure and benefit for those on whom the actions will bear.

Weaknesses

• Many would feel uncomfortable with the lack of absolutes which are often a characteristic of Teleological Systems.  In theory any action, including killing, stealing, or even ethnic cleansing could be justified on the grounds of bringing the greatest happiness to the greatest number.
• Who is to judge what is the 'most loving' outcome for all concerned, or how can 'the greatest good' be measured.  How are we to judge what the natural purpose of a person, an object or activity is?
• Can the consequences of an action ALWAYS justify the means by which the desired outcome was brought about.  EG did the perceived economic benefits which resulted from Margaret Thatcher's economic policy of the 1980s justify the mass unemployment which was also caused by the policy?

Deontological Ethics  Key words:  Duty, obligation, sin

Actions are intrinsically right or wrong.  That is they are right or wrong in themselves because they conform to a standard which is above mere human judgement.  Eg.  murder is wrong, telling the truth is right.  

An action is right or wrong regardless of the context or the consequence, simply because it conforms (or not) to the higher law.  Deontology often involves Absolutism.  Absolutists insist that some actions are not morally neutral, but are right or wrong Always, everywhere, and for everyone.  The 10 Commandments or Shar'iah Law are examples of the kind of authority called upon by deontological theories.  Kant's Categorical Imperative is another Deontological System, as is Natural Law as developed by St Thomas Aquinas.

Strengths of Deontology

• There are clear guidelines for behaviour.  People do not have to decided whether certain actions are right or wrong.
• Strong moral positions prevent certain behavioural boundaries being easily crossed.  There are few people within British society even now who would now be prepared to regard the wilful taking of human life as acceptable.

Weaknesses

• Deontological systems can be inflexible, failing to take account of circumstances or cultural differences.
• There is a danger that justice can be seen simply as a the application of retribution to the infringement of a law, without any reference to context, or mitigating circumstances.  Shakespeare's 'Measure for Measure' explores this concept nicely as Isabella's brother Claudio is condemned to death for fornication despite (a) being engaged to the young woman involved and (b) her being about to give birth to their baby, which would leave the baby fatherless.  Hardly justice for all concerned.

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