Using the links above you can access various fables, myths, legends, sagas, eddas, histories, faerie stories and commentaries from the European and Middle Eastern cultures of the past. These have been specifically selected on their relevance to gods and goddesses, mythical heroes, magical beasts and aetheric creatures that have found their way from the imagination onto the printed page.
SUMERIAN TEXTS
   
Introduction
An extremely large body of texts (hundreds of thousands of texts) in the Sumerian language have survived, the great majority on clay tablets. Sumerian is written in cuneiform and is the oldest known written human language. Types of Sumerian texts known include personal letters, business letters and transactions, receipts, lexical lists, laws, hymns and prayers, magical incantations, and scientific texts including mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. Monumental inscriptions and texts on different objects like statues or bricks are also very common. Many texts survive in multiple copies because they were repeatedly transcribed by scribes-in-training.

Enuma Elish
by Unknown (12th C. BCE)
to be found in:

Enûma Elish is the creation epic of Babylonian mythology. It was first discovered by modern scholars (in fragmentary form) in the ruined library of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh. Enûma Elish is recorded in Akkadian on seven clay tablets. The majority of Tablet V has never been recovered, but aside from this lacuna the text is almost complete. This epic is one of the most important sources for understanding the Babylonian worldview, centered on the supremacy of Marduk and the existence of mankind for the service of the gods. Its primary original purpose, however, is not an exposition of theology or theogony, but the elevation of Marduk, the chief god of Babylon, above other Mesopotamian gods. Enûma Elish has existed in various versions and copies, the oldest probably dating to at least 1700 B.C.E.

The Epic of Gilgamesh
by Unknown (12th C. BCE)
to be found in:

The Epic of Gilgamesh is from Babylonia, dating from long after the time that king Gilgamesh was supposed to have ruled. It was based on earlier Sumerian legends of Gilgamesh. The most complete version of the epic was preserved on eleven clay tablets in the collection of the 7th century BC Assyrian king Ashurbanipal.

The Code of Hammurabi
by Unknown (12th C. BCE)
to be found in:

This is the earliest known legal code, considered the basis of many Near Eastern legal systems.

The Seven Evil Spirits
by Unknown (12th C. BCE)
to be found in:

This story is the sixteenth tablet of a series called the "Evil Demon Series," of which we have an Assyrian with a parallel Sumerian text. Presumably, therefore, it was a very ancient legend.
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GREEK TEXTS
   
Introduction  

The Iliad
by Homer (750 bce)

The f irst great epic poem involving most of the best known heroes and gods from Greek mythology; Helen, whose beauty can launch a thousand ships, Achillies whose heel has passed into modern day terminology and the wooden horse in which the Greeks hid to finally bring down the great city of Troy after ten years of battle, aided and abbetted by Zeus, Athena and Apollo.

The Odyssey
by Homer (750 bce)

The sequal to the Iliad. The heroes of Troy are on their way home but Odysseus has gone missing and his son and wife await him for many years. Meanwhile Odysseus and his men are fighting the Cyclops and dealing with numerous other adventures. The Iliad and the Odyssey were classical texts and required reading even in the days of the Roman Empire and continue to be studied today.
Homeric Hymns
by Homer		 The Homeric Hymns honour the Greek gods. They are called 'Homeric' because the ancients attributed them to Homer; it is now accepted that they were composed by later poets working in the same tradition. Four of them stand out by reason of their length and quality: Hymns 2-5, in honour of Demeter, Apollo, Hermes, and Aphrodite respectively.

Theogony
by Hesiod

 The Theogony presents the descent of the gods, and, along with the works of Homer, is one of the key source documents for Greek mythology; it is the Genesis of Greek mythology. It gives the clearest presentation of the Greek pagan creation myth, starting with the creatrix goddesses Chaos and Earth, from whom descended all the gods and men; it mentions hundreds of individual gods, goddesses, demi-gods, elementals and heroes.

Works and Days
by Hesiod

 In Works and Days Hesiod divided time into five ages:--the Golden age, ruled by Cronos, when people lived extremely long lives 'without sorrow of heart'; the Silver age, ruled by Zeus; the Bronze age, an epoch of war; the Heroic age, the time of the Trojan war; and lastly the Iron age, the corrupt present. This is similar to Hindu and Buddhist concepts of the Kali Yuga. The idea of a Golden Age has likewise had a profound impact on western thought. Works and Days also discusses pagan ethics, extols hard work, and lists lucky and unlucky days of the month for various activities.

The Hymns of Orpheus
Translated by Thomas Taylor

The Orphic Hymns are a set of pre-classical poetic compositions, attributed to the culture hero Orpheus, himself the subject of a renowned myth. In reality, these poems were probably composed by several different poets. Reminiscent of the Rig-Veda, the Orphic Hymns contain a rich set of clues about prehistoric European mythology.
The Poems of Sappho
by Sappho (6th Century BCE)
 Naturally, someone as intimately concerned with love as Sappho would be drawn to the irresistible realm of the goddess of love. And indeed, Aphrodite plays a significant role in many of Sappho's poems. It is to this goddess that Sappho addresses several of her works. In some cases, it seems as if the poet were a supplicant, begging Aphrodite for mercy from the ravages of unrequited love; in others, Sappho sings joyfully of the beautiful deity, and the poems are like graceful gifts to this golden goddess.

Poetica Astronomica
by Hyginus (AD 207)

 Covering the mythical accounts of stellar formations.
Fabulae
by Hyginus (AD 207)
 A comprehensive survey of myths.
Agamemnon
by Aeschylus (458 bce)
In Agamemnon, the chorus of Elders quarrels with the queen's lover, and in The Eumenides, a chorus of Furies pursue the grief-stricken Orestes. Aeschylus directed many of his own productions, and according to ancient critics, he is said to have brought the Furies onstage in so realistic a manner that women miscarried in the audience.
The Choephori
by Aeschylus (450 bce)
Eumenides
by Aeschylus (458 bce)
Prometheus Bound
by Aeschylus (430 bce)
In his third surviving play, Prometheus Bound, Aeschylus tackles the myth of Prometheus, the world's first humanitarian. As the play begins, the titan is being fastened against his will to a peak in the Caucasian mountains for giving mankind the gift of fire without the consent of the gods. Prometheus knows Zeus is destined to fall. In fact, he holds the secret of the Olympian's doom--a certain woman that will be his undoing--but Prometheus will not reveal her name. Even amid the fire from heaven that is hurled at him in a frightening climax, Prometheus remains fearless and silent.
The Seven Against Thebes
by Aeschylus (467 bce)
In Seven Against Thebes, Aeschylus deals with themes of patricide and incest. He was not, however, willing to settle for the conventional explanation of the "family curse". Instead, Aeschylus delved deeper, suggesting that heredity is nothing more than a predisposition--that the true cause of such "acts of wickedness" is ambition, greed, and a lack of moral fortitude. Thus, eliminating the gods as an excuse for wickedness, Aeschylus demanded that men take responsibility for their actions.
The Suppliants
by Aeschylus (463 bce)
Ajax
by Sophocles
Antigone
by Sophocles
Electra
by Sophocles
Oedipus the King
by Sophocles
Oedipus at Colonus
by Sophocles

Philoctetes
by Sophocles

The Trachiniae
by Sophocles
  
The Dramas of Euripides
by Euripides
 Alcestis, Andromache, The Bacchantes, The Cyclops, Electra, Hecuba, Helen, The Heracleidae, Heracles, Hippolytus, Ion, Iphigenia in Tauris, Iphigenia At Aulis, Medea, Orestes, The Phoenissae, Rhesus, The Suppliants, The Trojan Women.
On the Heavens
by Aristotle		  

Aesop's Fables
by Aesop
ROMAN TEXTS
   
Introduction  

The Aeneid
by Virgil

 The Roman attempt at something akin to The Odyssey.
The Eclogues
by Virgil
The Georgics
by Virgil
The Golden Asse
Lucius Apuleius "Africanus"
The Marriage of Cupid and Psyche
Lucius Apuleius "Africanus"
On the Nature of Things
By Titus Lucretius Carus
Metamorphoses
by Ovid
EGYPTIAN TEXTS
   
Introduction  
The Book of the Dead (The Papyrus of Ani)
by E.A Wallis Budge (1895)
The Egyptian Heaven and Hell
by E. A. Wallis Budge (1905)
The Liturgy of Funerary Offerings
by E. A. Wallis Budge (1909)
Legends of the Gods
by E. A. Wallis Budge (1912)
The Burden of Isis
by James Teackle Dennis (1910)
The Wisdom of the Egyptians
by Brian Brown (1923)
FINNISH TEXTS
   
Introduction  
The Kalevala
by Elias Lönnrot (1835) 		This is the Finnish national epic, compiled by Elias Lönnrot (1802-1884) from ancient oral poetry. The material, old Finnish ballads and lyrical songs depicting "the sons of Kalevala". Lönnrot's aim was to arrange the mythological and other poems into a single volume, comparable to the Icelandic Edda, and tell of the past heroes as Homer did in the Iliad and the Odyssey.

 
NORSE TEXTS
   
Introduction
Most of the sagas, legends andf folktales derive from earlier oral sources. The dates given are of when such tales were written down or collected together. Deriving from Germanic oral traditions, the sagas and eddas (though no one is quite clear as to what the word edda may mean) of Iceland and Scandinavia fall into two main catagories; those dealing with mythological themes, known as "heroic" and those that feel more historic and known as the "family" sagas. It has to be said, however, that gods and aetheric creatures can pop up or are mentioned almost anywhere throughout the many manuscripts found.

The Elder or Poetic Edda
by Unknown (1270)

to be found in: Royal Library in Copenhagen

 Preserved in the Codex Regis of 1270 this collection of Norse-Icelandic mythological and heroic poetry contains the great narratives of the creation of the world and the coming of Ragnarok, the Doom of the Gods. Thirty four texts have now been combined to make up the collection and these are thought to be the ones that Snorri Sturluson (see below) based his Eddas upon.

The Younger or Prose Edda
by Snorri Sturluson (1230)

The Prose Edda consists of two main sections. The first is "The Deluding of Gylfi" or Gylfaginning in which Gylfi asks three chieftains (High One, Just-as-high and Third) questions pertaining to Norse mythology. The second, Skáldskaparmál ('Poetic Diction'), gives various kennings and the stories behind them.

Njal's Saga
by Unknown (13th Century)

 Njal's Saga is considered the greatest of the Icelandic sagas. It is also perhaps the most dramatized. It is an epic account of the heroic (and handsome) Gunnar Hamundarson and his scheming friend Njal; a tragedy shot through with black comedy.

Eyrbyggja Saga
by Unknown (13th Century)

 The feud between Snorri and the family of Thorolf Twist-foot concentrates more on the community as a whole rather than on any one single character. There is a fair amount of sdupernatural material here and Sir Walter Scott thought it the most interesting of the sagas.

Viga Glum's Saga
by Unknown (13th Century)

 The Icelandic saga of the killer Viga Glum is the story of a known Icelandic chieftain of the tenth century. In keeping with the majority of the sagas it is not entirely historical, since folktale motifs have been worked into the reports of actual events. Supernatural elements also work their way into the tale.

The Saga of the Volsungs
by Unknown (13th Century)

 The Norse Epic of Sigurd the Dragon Slayer whose grandfather King Volsung was also a mighty hero. This is an Icelandic version of the German Nibelungen cycle. Notable for being one of Richard Wagner's sources for his operas.
Nibelungenlied
by Unknown (13th Century)
 The German "Iliad" that possibly sprang up among the Franks along the banks of the Rhine and very popular in the Middle Ages; 28 manuscripts survive. The stories held within must have migrated to Norway, perhaps in the sixth century, and are to be found in the saga of the Volsungs. It follows life and death of the hero Siegfried and the revenge of his widow Kriemhild. Atilla the Hun and Theodoric the Great are supposed to make an appearance as do dwarves, dragons and magic rings.

Beowulf
by Unknown (th Century)

 Greatest of the few Old English poems that have survived. When Tolkien wrote "The Lord of the Rings" in a conscious attempt to offer England its own mythology he did so in the full realisation that although Beowulf was written in Old English it deals with Northern themes and is set in Denmark. The hero Beowulf saves the Royal House of Denmark by slaying the monster Grendal and then in his old age confronts a treasure hoarding dragon where he meets his heroic end.

The Danish History
by Saxo Grammaticus (13th Century)

 The first nine books of this sixteen part work in latin deal in the main with mythological and legendary themes taken from earlier sagas and runic inscriptions, some of which no longer exist, from which today we receive many later accounts including Shakespeare's Hamlet and the story of William Tell. The later parts deal with more historical material.

Popular Tales from the Norse
by George Webbe Dasent (1904)

 Mythology refers mainly to deities, whereas folktales speak mostly of fantastical creatures and beings. So here you will find retellings of the folk tales of Scandinavia, filled with giants, trolls, witches, heroes and evil step-siblings. Dasent met Jacob Grimm of The Brothers Grimm fame and he clearly fanned his enthusiasm for such tales.

Tuetonic Myth and Legend
by Donald A. Mackenzie (1912)

 This is Donald Mackenzie's able retelling of the Northern mythological cycle. He weaves a coherent narrative from the Eddas, the Niebelunglied, the Volsung Saga, Beowulf, the primordial Hamlet myths, and Medieval German tales of chivalry.
I
CELTIC TEXTS (Wales and Ireland)  
   
Introduction
The Second Battle of Mag Tuired
(Cath Maige Tuired)
by Unknown
to be found in:
 This Irish saga, first written down in the ninth Century A.D. is an account of the epic battle between the mythical Tuatha De Danann and Fomoire for Ireland. It has deep roots in Indo-European mythology, told with Homeric grace and bawdy humor. There are many allusions to ancient pre-Christian Celtic traditions.
The Cattle-Raid of Cooley
(Tain Bo Cuailnge)
by Unknown
to be found in:
 The Cattle-Raid of Cooley is the central epic of the Ulster cycle. It tells of the great Irish hero, Cuchulain of Ulster, and his battle against the forces of Queen Medb of Connaught. The Ulster Cycle centers around the court of King Conchobar.
Book of Conquests
(Lebor Gabala)
by Unknown
to be found in:
 The Mythological Cycle is the oldest of the three Cycles of Irish epic. It is preserved in the Lebor Gabala which traces the history of Ireland.
The Pursuit of Diarmuid and Grainne
by Unknown
to be found in:
 The Fenian Cycle deals with Finn Mac Cool and the Fianna. This is the most famous of the tales.
Book of the Dun Cow
(Leabhar na huidre)
by Unknown
to be found in: Royal Irish Academy in Dublin
 This is the oldest manuscript written entirely in Irish. It was compiled before 1106 and contains texts of the Mythological and Ulster Cycle. It also contains a version of Tain Bo Cuailnge.
Book of Leinster
(Leabhar Laighneach)
by Unknown
to be found in: Trinity College and the Franciscan Library in Dublin
 This is the second best source of Irish myth and legend. It was compiled after 1150. . It is also known as Book of Nuaghava/Oaksvale and Lebor na Nuachongbala.
The Mabinogion
by Lady Charlotte Guest tr. (1877)
to be found in: Jesus College, Oxford
 The Mabinogion is a group of Welsh tales from the Red Book of Hergest, a 14th Century manuscript. It is a collection of pre-christian Welsh mythology, first recorded as appearing in the 13th century. Welsh mythology is inextricably linked to the Irish, with a great many linguistic variants having commonalities on both sides of the Irish sea. The Mabinogion comes in four sections, known as branches. The Taliesin is seen fit to be present because of its otherwise close association to the themes in the Mabinogion itself.
The Book of Taliesin
(Llyfr Taliesin)
to be found in: National Library of Wales
 dating from the first half of the fourteenth century, is one of the most famous Welsh manuscripts. It does not appear to have been known by its present title until the seventeenth century. The volume contains a collection of some of the oldest poems in Welsh, many of them attributed to the poet Taliesin who was active towards the end of the sixth century and sang the praise of Urien Rheged and his son Owain ab Urien. Compiled in c1275, it contains more than sixty poems.
The Black Book of Carmarthen
(Llyfr Du Caerfyrddin)
to be found in: National Library of Wales, Aberystwyth
 so called because of the colour of its binding and its connection with the Priory of St John the Evangelist and Teulyddog, Carmarthen, is now thought by modern scholars to be the work of a single scribe writing at different periods of his life before and about the year 1250. This makes it one of the earliest surviving manuscripts written solely in the Welsh language. It was designated one of the 'Four Ancient Books of Wales' by William Forbes Skene (1809-92), although he believed it to have been written much earlier in the twelfth century. Transcribed in c1250, it is the earliest complete manuscript of Welsh poetry.
Book of Aneirin
(Llyfr Aneirin)
to be found in: South Glamorgan County Library
 Transcribed in the mid-13th Century. It includes the famous poem Gododdin.
Gododdin
to be found in:
 Long Welsh poem (1,480 lines) which contains the only full-length exposition in Welsh literature. It celebrates the heroic values of the early British/Welsh warrior aristocracy and laments their passing.
The Four Ancient Books of Wales
by William F. Skene (1868)		 This is the only available translation of the complete corpus of Welsh Bardic poetry.
British Goblins
by Wirt Sikes (1881)		 Despite the title, this book is actually a study of Welsh fairy folklore.
   
REFERENCE WORKS
Phrase and Fable Brewers