Lecturer: Derek Newton
David Rowbory, 4th June 2004
2738 words
The kingdom of God ñ his indisputable reign ñ was a recurrent theme in OT prophecy[1] and first-century Jewish Messianic expectation[2]. Matthew picks this up in his genealogy, emphasizing Jesusí descent from great King David and as he records the Magi searching for the ìone born king of the Jewsî[3]. Jesusí first words in Markís account are ìThe time has come, the kingdom of God is nearî and Luke records the devil tempting Jesus with kingdoms, authority and splendour[4]. In John, Nathanael declares Jesus the ìSon of GodÖ King of Israelî[5]. Each gospel is saturated with references to the ëkingdom of Godí or Jesusí kingship, through his parables, other teaching and actions, and what others say about him. But what did Jesus mean by the kingdom of God? Did he really understand himself as the fulfilment of all these expectations? Or did the early church project onto Jesus its own understanding of eschatology and its apocalyptic dreams? To what extent did Jesus reinforce or challenge existing Jewish expectations of the reign of God? How would Jesus expect people today to relate to him and live out the message of the kingdom of God?
Preaching the Kingdom of God was clearly Jesusí conscious focus from the start of his public ministry: ìthat is why I have comeî[6]. With powerful deeds Jesus intentionally demonstrated the imminence and arrival of the kingdom and claimed the kingship for himself. Matthew and Mark both show Jesus echoing John the Baptistís words ìRepent for the kingdom of God/heaven is nearî[7]. (Wenham[8] and others remind us that ëheavení is used as a polite cipher for ëGodí, reflecting a Jewish audience, rather than suggesting ìJesus was talking about ëgetting into heaveníî after death. ìThe kingdom which Jesus proclaimed was not just up in heaven; it was more like an invasion of earth by heaven!î[9]) People regularly called Jesus a teacher[10] and prophet[11], but Markís account hinges on his recognition as ìthe Christî by Peter[12] and most parables concern the kingdom.
In Luke Jesus begins his ministry as a preacher-prophet rejected in his home town. Consistently his teaching concerned ìthe good news of the kingdom of Godî[13], but that theme is scarcely overtly developed in Lukeís account ñ in the parables of the Sower[14] and the Ten Minas[15]. However his authority shone through his teaching and his bold acts of exorcism, healing and calming the storm[16]. Whilst Luke does not so clearly link the parables to ëkingdomí, he clearly depicts Jesus setting out a new world order of justice and good news for the oppressed and since all his preaching is about the kingdom no further explanation is necessary. Johnís references to ëkingdomí are similarly veiled, though implied by references to Jesus as ìthe Christî[17], by the Triumphal entry when the crowds recognised him as the long-awaited king and by the accusation to Pilate. His opponents recognised that Jesus himself ìclaimed to be king of the Jewsî[18].
Clearly demonstrating the huge significance of the Kingdom to Jesus, the gospel accounts prove our richest resource for discovering Jesusí own understanding of the Kingdom, concerned as they are with Jesusí own words and actions. While the epistles contain 21 references to ëkingdomí, Jesusí own understanding is most clearly heard in the accounts based on evidence from his followers who lived with him. Recognising that every text arises from a situational context (Sitz im Leben[19]), numerous scholars have assumed the evangelists wrote their gospels to pursue a polemical agenda within their own community. They presume the early church projected onto Jesus its own understanding of the Kingdom of God, misconstruing and obscuring Jesusí own teaching. They presuppose emphases in the gospels originate from their human authors and redactors, and no possibility is left for Jesusí own understandings and emphases to have an effect on the accounts of his ministry.
However, the precise target communities of the gospels cannot be identified with certainty so this approach is no better than assuming that every emphasis of the gospels has its origin in the mind and from the lips of Jesus himself[20]. Based in clearly varied contexts, even if different evangelists had their own agendas, their resounding agreement, and the consonance with Paulís writing (claiming direct knowledge from Jesus himself) confirms the gospel accounts accurately reflect Jesusí view of the kingdom. Indeed Luke[21] and John[22] make their agendas plain; Matthew[23] and Mark[24] strongly imply theirs. All seek to convince the reader that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, themselves convinced from Jesusí own word and deed.
Within the gospel accounts, the literary structure, prophetic fulfilment, parables, dramatic actions and other teaching and Jesusí trial give different perspectives on Jesusí understanding of the Kingdom. Each gospelís introduction and overall structure shows how the evangelist understands Jesus and his mission. As highly selective documents, written by people convinced of the importance and truth of the subject matter,[25] even their literary devices are influenced by the character they report, so that the priority of the human author can be expected to reflect the priority of Jesus himself. These are not detached biographies, or imaginative products of pious and creative minds, but accounts of a profoundly surprising man written by devoted followers who have been surprised[26] and rebuked[27] by Jesus. Some mention of ëKingdomí comes early in each gospel, and the theme permeates most incidents and teaching recorded. Finally, as Jesusí identity is recognised by Peter, and he heads for Jerusalem the kingdom is seen at the heart of the climax. Jesus is arrested and tried for show, demonstrates authority before his accusers, accepts the accusation he claimed to be king, is executed but then raised to life as the death-conquering ruler of the world, just as he had told his unbelieving disciples.
ìThe best-known form of Jesusí proclamation is of course his use of explicit stories, namely the parables.î[28] Many ñ especially in Luke ñ do not explicitly begin ìThe kingdom of heaven/God is likeÖî, but most teach something about it since Jesusí preaching was kingdom-focussed. So, having introduced the Kingdom in Matthew 5, the subsequent parables relate to kingdom ethics and community life. Then from Matthew 13 Jesus explains on a conceptual level aspects of the kingdom. The Sower explains the varied reactions he expects to its preaching. The Weeds and the Net explain the disturbing mixture of good and bad through the apparent kingdom until the last judgement reveals who is really chosen. The Hidden Treasure and Pearl parables show the kingdom is valuable above anything else. having told the Twelve they will sit on judging thrones over a new Israel, two vineyard parables clearly describe the kingdom, picking up familiar ëvineyardí imagery used for Israel in Isaiah 5 and 27. The Two Sons shows how God judges actions rather than intent and pleasing words; the kingdom is for repentant sinners not for the unrepentant self-righteous. Later parables (Wedding Banquet, Virgins, Talents, Sheep and Goats) urge listeners to make every effort to enter the kingdom without delay in view of coming judgement, and suggest that citizenship of the kingdom necessitates action.
Jesus aimed his parables at his disciples, to whom he explained the meaning more clearly in private, and to outsiders whether interested observers from the crowds or aggressive opponents. To his disciples ñ the Twelve and others who followed him closely ñ he said ìthe secret of the kingdom of God had already been given, seemingly in Jesusí gracious selection and calling of his followers. But others who did not understand because they were not following Jesus the king closely were condemned by the parables to be ìever seeing but never perceivingÖî[29]
Other more direct teaching interspersed amongst the parables explains Jesusí vision for kingdom-aware religious teachers. Criticising the past-focussed, he insisted the Kingdom is continually contemporary, combining old and new treasures. Welcoming children[30], Jesus shows how Godís rule contradicts human rule, exalting the poor and lowly and humbling the proud, even as Mary bore witness before his birth[31].
His dramatic actions, miraculously feeding thousands abundantly, walking on water, casting out demons and the transfiguration amongst others, reinforce his authoritative description of the kingdom, revealing him as king. Ultimately entering Jerusalem on a donkey, claiming Zechariahís prophecy (9:9), clearing and condemning the Temple, show he considered himself Israelís ultimate prophet, priest and king, replacing even the Temple with his own body[32]. Sanders[33] rightly recognises the huge significance of the Temple incident as Jesus confronts the religious authorities, the ëtenantsí[34] of the kingdom, but mistakenly assumes Jesus was preparing for a new Temple when he clearly referred to his own body. Herzog identifies the crucial link between Temple and kingdom from Davidís reign[35].
Jesus clearly out-performed Moses and the prophets, David and the kings, Aaron and the priests promising eternal life now and in the future to those who believed in him. His death ñ like other popular prophets[36] should have ended his influence, but his resurrection clearly against all his disciplesí expectations, was the last dramatic sign of his God-ordained kingship. More than prediction, as Herzog only seems to consider prophecy[37], his words inaugurated the kingdom and positioned him as king in the kingdom of God, claiming to be God himself.
Debate rages regarding the nature of the Kingdom Jesus proclaimed. Was it eschatological, futurist and apocalyptic, or did it emerge with his preaching and praxis? Did Jesus preach and inaugurate a kingdom of this world or the next? Did his agenda change with his imminent arrest? How did Israel relate to his Kingdom?
Some scholars say Jesus looked to an eschatological kingdom alone, others that he was bringing the kingdom of God on earth in his ministry. If eschatological, some see Jesus proclaiming and promising a future Kingdom, either thwarted by his death, or inaugurated by his resurrection or future return (parousia). Dodd argues that Jesus realized the eschatology, so that the kingdom he brought precluded a futurist and apocalyptic eschatology[38], noting Johnís ìthe time is coming and has now comeî[39] and other clues which suggest that Jesusí Kingdom was already being realised. Coming with definite modernist presuppositions, the Bultmann school insist the kingdom is existential, not temporal, but this too is unsatisfactory[40].
Dichotomising is an unhelpful modernist tendency, and Jesusí actions demonstrated. It seems that Jesus clearly understood the kingdom as intimately connected with his arrival in the world (reflected in Matthew and Lukeís birth narratives). It was established through his and his disciplesí preaching, the cross completed his mission[41], and yet he looked forward to its continuing through the outpouring of the spirit and the fullness of the kingdom awaited his return. So the kingdom is now present on earth, and is to advance in this age but more is to be expected. Many kingdom parables are eschatological, but eschatology can often be interpreted as describing the sudden in terms of the soon. Kingdom clearly is associated with judgement. Jesusí first coming brought some judgement as his hearers were divided between believers and opponents, and he warns all to prepare for the sudden judgement that his second coming will bring as the kingdom is fully established. As Paul similarly argued Jesus believed that the kingdom could come at any time[42].
The challenge to the temple has already been seen as a revolutionary act. Choosing twelve apostles ñ in place of the twelve tribes of Israel ñ likewise indicates his revolutionary intent to reform Israel totally. Repeatedly in parable, teaching and action he shows himself as the head of a new people drawn from within Israel and with hints of including Gentiles too.
His kingdom may be a revolution, but Jesus never suggested it would involve physical violence. Having rebuked Peter for defending him with violence at his arrest he asked rhetorically, ìAm I leading a rebellion, that you have come out with swords and clubs to capture me?î[43]. His teaching and dramatic call for allegiance to him as Lord was the revolution. He refused to let others set his agenda, making him king by force[44].
Jesus was greater than just ìone immeasurably great Man, who was strong enough to think of Himself as the spiritual ruler of humankind and to bend history to His purposeî[45]
The reign of God and the kingship of Jesus pose vital implications for Christians today. Particularly through European Christendom, and now in nominally Christian states Christians are in danger of conspiring with a religious or political establishment opposed to Godís way. Liberation theology certainly reminds us that Jesusí kingdom brings dramatic reform, and cannot be confined to a modernist individualistic private faith. However, Jesusí kingdom is clearly not entirely based on this world, and he never advocated force or violence in its extension. The motivation for justice is not the Marxist pursuit of social progress, but the radical reformation of people who yield allegiance to Christ the King of Love.
True children of the kingdom honour the king and the kingís priorities; they welcome the marginalised, recognising how Jesus demonstrated Godís concern for outsiders. They enter the kingdom as children and should remain similarly humble in view of Godís grace. Rather than worrying or concerning themselves with the worldís agenda of worldly possessions, Christians must seek first Godís kingdom and his righteousness. This necessitates generosity rather than selfishness, forgiveness rather than revenge or bitterness. Like the Sower we should expect some dramatic changes and fruitfulness in the midst of considerable disappointment and rejection of the message of the kingdom. We must trust not in our own ability to extend Godís rule, but in Godís power to use a seemingly insignificant mustard-seed kingdom to revolutionise the world. We must guard against building our own kingdoms and religious systems, like the Pharisees and other Jewish religious leaders in place of Godís reign shown by personal and community righteousness and justice.
Christian teachers instructed about the kingdom ñ indeed every Christian ñ must continually reapply Jesusí revolution to contemporary situations seeking its continuing relevance. Leadership in the kingdom reflects Jesusí servant leadership. Still today people must listen to this proven ìprophet of the justice of the reign of Godî[46] who unlike popular prophets fails to tell people everything they want to hear[47], will not promise everything people want[48], but whose word and deeds are trustworthy and will be vindicated. Citizens of the kingdom need to proclaim the reign of Jesus to every nation so that more can be gathered in before the king returns. Discipleship is crucial to the kingdom: Jesus sought more than nominal citizens but disciples whose own lives had been turned upside down and oriented to Godís priorities. Jesus patiently taught his disciples and Christians have a duty to follow his example.
Jesus headed a primarily social and religious revolution, calling for himself a kingdom of priests[49] from Israel to which all nations would join. As the son of God, he personally ushered in Godís reign in his earthly ministry but pointed forward to its eschatological and apocalyptic fulfilment at his return. He consciously demonstrated commanding authority over all creation ñpeople, spirits and nature ñ but came to serve[50], not reigning like the rulers of the Gentiles or even following the errors of the Israelite kings. His kingdom extended beyond Israel, is not physical and political, but neither private and individualised. It necessitates radical social reform beginning with individual and community allegiance to him, and thus affects wider society. He calls humble and contrite sinners to join in his kingdom, not the proud and strong. He is a servant king, a prophet king, and priestly king whose glory was veiled during his first advent but will be fully revealed when he returns. Despite coming ìgentle and riding on a donkeyî[51], he expected opposition from many ñ especially religious and political leaders Godís rule threatened ñ and warned disciples to expect the same. Jesus consciously fulfilled OT hopes for a great king in Davidís line, but though sent to ìthe lost sheep of Israelî[52] also fulfilled Godís promise to Abram to bless all nations through him and his seed. Now people from all nations may say ìThe LORD is our judge, the LORD is our lawgiver, the LORD is our king; it is he who will save usî[53] for in Jesus he has his universal rule.
Herzog II, William R Jesus, Justice and the Reign of God: A Ministry of Liberation, Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2000
Holding, James Patrick Did Paul Expect Christ to Return Soon?, Eschatology in the Letters, http://www.tektonics.org/paulend.html on 4th June 2004
Sanders, EP Jesus and Judaism, Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985
Schweitzer, Albert The Quest for the Historical Jesus, Trans W. Montgomery, New York: Macmillan, 1956
Stott, John The Cross of Christ, Leicester: IVP, 1986
Travis, Stephen Christian Hope and the future of man, Leicester: IVP, 1980
Wenham, David The parables of Jesus: Pictures of Revolution, London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1989
Wright, N T Jesus and the Victory of God, London: SPCK, 1996
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… sower ñ reactions
… weeds ñ not pure yet, but will be sorted later
… treasure hidden / pearl ñ great value
… net ñ many caught, judgement later
… 18: Greatest ñ child
… kingdom teaching ñ youíll sit on 12 judging thrones ñ new Israel
… 20: vineyard workers, Ö
… 21: two sons, VINEYARD 33-46 (clear ref to Israel ñ Isa 5, 14?29)
… 22 wedding banquet
… 25: 10 virgins
… talents
… sheep and goats
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx pick some parables
Some decent quotes:
… Schweitzer (370f quoted in Herzog 5) described Jesus as ìone immeasurably great Man, who was strong enough to think of Himself as the spiritual ruler of humankind and to bend history to His purposeî
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Gospel |
Kingdom parables |
Kingdom actions |
Kingdom teaching |
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Matt |
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5: beatitudes: theirs is kingdom of heaven (poor in spirit + persecuted cos of righteousness) Enter K: righteousness surpass Pharisees and teachers of law |
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Mark |
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Luke |
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John |
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[1] Throughout Isaiah, eg Isaiah 6:5 ìI have seen the king, YHWH Almightyî, 32:1, Jeremiah 10:7, Zechariah 14:9
[2] eg in John Stott, The Cross of Christ, 26
[3] Matthew 2:2
[4] Luke 4:5,6
[5] John 1:49
[6] Mark 1:38
[7] Matthew 3:2, 4:17, Mark 1:15,
[8] Wenham, 23
[9] Wenham, 23
[10] Mark 12:19 etc
[11] Matthew 13:57 etc
[12] Mark 8:29
[13] Luke 4:43
[14] Luke 8:1
[15] Luke 19:11
[16] Luke 8:25, 9:57
[17] John 7:41, 11:27 etc
[18] John 19:21 (also 18:33-5)
[19] eg outlined in Herzog, 73ff
[20] as with the theme of the Cross in Stott, 31
[21] Luke 1:1-4
[22] John 20:31
[23] Matthew 1:1
[24] Mark 1:1
[25] John 20:30-1
[26] Luke 24
[27] Matthew 16:23, 26:8
[28] N T Wright, 174
[29] Mark 4:10-12
[30] Matthew 18:1-6
[31] Luke 1:46-55
[32] John 2: 12-21
[33] E P Sanders, 61-90, (quoted in Herzog, 111)
[34] Mark 11:12-12:12
[35] Herzog, 112-5 ff
[36] Herzog, 53ff
[37] Herzog, 59
[38] eg C H Dodd, The Interpretation of the Fourth Gospel, 403-6 and a discussion in Stephen Travis, Christian hope and the future of man, 73ff
[39] John 4:23, 5:25
[40] Travis, 21
[41] John 19:30 ìIt is finishedî
[42] James Patrick Holding, Did Paul Expect Christ to Return Soon?, Eschatology in the Letters,
http://www.tektonics.org/paulend.html on 4th June 2004
[43] Matthew 26:55
[44] John 6:15
[45] Schweitzer 370f (quoted in Herzog, 5)
[46] Herzog, 47
[47] Herzog, 53
[48] Herzog, 59
[49] Revelation 1:6, following Israelís description in Exodus 19:6
[50] Mark 10:45
[51] Matthew 21:5
[52] Matthew 15:24
[53] Isaiah 33:22
[54] Wenham, 20
[55] David Wenham, The Parables of Jesus, 17
[56] Wenham, 21