Lecturer: David Smith
How can Christians respond Christianly to theological, cultural & religious conflict in a pluralising world? Views on living with pluralisation from contemporary Western and non-Western churches and mission groupings.
David Rowbory, 31st May 2004
2744 words
Two thousand years after Jesusí birth, our world experiences more pluralisation than ever before. Advances in transportation and industrialisation gradually enabled even ordinary people to travel to almost any land and people group. In such an ëexpandedí world, ìno longer physically self-enclosedî, Kenneth Cragg urges all to ìbe realistically open, each to all, in custodial doctrine and tradition.î Other peoples think and act very differently to ourselves but ìall faiths are required to respond, in some measure, to the same questions.î[1] Sometimes differences are celebrated but often they threaten people ñ Christians included ñ and lead to conflict: verbal or physical. How should Christians react to pluralising influences, to alien peoples, cultures and religions and especially to inter-religious conflict? Some advocate segregation, crusade, capitulation or compromise; are any valid Biblical Christian responses?
Set in varied contexts, the worldwide Christian church itself exhibits great diversity in theology and practice. While this essay concentrates on developing a Christian analysis of and response to inter-religious conflict, in tackling religious pluralism, we must engage with Christian theological pluralism. Christian traditions, especially beyond European ëChristendomí may suggest helpful responses to religious pluralism; some theology may prove inadequate and require reappraisal in an obviously plural world.
Cragg observes that globalisation and pluralisation are by no means novel experiences for the church. Curtis Chang draws lessons from Augustine and Aquinas who faced sometimes aggressive challenges to Christianity from pagans and Muslims. Christians ñ especially Western ñ may need to learn ìwhat to say when truths previously held to be universal are under assault from a disorientating religious pluralism.î[2] Augustine (ad 413) realised the church could outlive the Roman empire and was innocent of its demise. Similarly we perhaps should not worry (like Samuel Hungtingdon[3]) about rising rivals to Western culture. Globally-aware Christians see how Godís story extends far beyond one culture and can disentangle globalised Christianity from a corrupt Western cultural and economic hegemony. Aquinas (ad 1259) ìpondered the disorientating Muslim challenge that provoked most medieval Christians to crusade rather than converseî[4] and found how to maintain gospel distinctives without the fearful aggressive defensiveness of his contemporaries. Both adopted their opponentís language, entered their worldviews and identified their weaknesses and expressed the gospel in their language.
Decades ago, Bishop Kenneth Cragg using a Nigerian term, described the fear, misunderstanding and hostility between Christianity and Islam, as ìavoidance relationsî[5]; Christians and Muslims seldom mix to avoid arguments or fighting. That situation has only deepened. Nigerian Christians have often criticised foreign missionaries and Nigerians interested in reaching Muslims for associating at all with Muslims. An Egyptian Coptic Christian friend studying in Glasgow expressed great surprise seeing me talking freely with a Saudi Muslim ñ he certainly could not.
Mass media implicitly indict ëreligioní as the root cause of much violent conflict in the world, whether in Northern Ireland, Yugoslavia, Indonesia, Nigeria, Sudan, Pakistan, India or the Middle East. For example, the BBC reported ìIn 1993, the Islamic government's forces entered Ö Juba, taking control from the largely Christian Sudanese People's Liberation Army (SPLA).î[6] (emphasis mine). Perhaps this is genuinely the Western secular mediaís perspective, but some realise that not all ëreligious conflictí is caused primarily by religious differences. ìThe superficial labels of 'Christian' and 'Muslim' - or indeed the tribal tags often used to describe other violence in Nigeria - do not explain the heart of the problemÖ religious and ethnic splitsÖ are often exaggerated and are invariably manipulated by politicians in their quest for high office - which in Nigeria means access to the country's vast crude oil receipts.î[7]
Whether today or in the past, more reasons than religion spark conflict. Mein Kampf blamed the Jews for all Germanyís troubles,[8] but Hitler hid greed, pride, envy, fear and power-lust behind evolutionary and religious arguments for Aryan superiority and the obliteration of Jews. Behind the mask of religion, conflict must be understood to result from basic human sinfulness, even before ëreligiousí differences are introduced. Wherever sinful humans conflict with God they conflict with other people. We should re-evaluate the crusades, the Spanish inquisition and other historical ëreligiousí conflict and recognise the latent racial pride, fear, greed and power-lust they expose.
Insecurity may be a root of much violence too. ìOther religions, even if only superficially realised, have a way of arousing the surmise and so troubling the security.î[9] Pluralism may threaten the entire worldview of a person, and of a whole society. Fighting this threat by physical violence or crusading verbal confrontation[10] enables the threatened to maintain their own worldview without genuine dialogue which may force them to painfully re-evaluate their worldview. Insecurity often reflects lazy thinking and a refusal to face reality. Christian crusades hindered the cause of Christ not only without Christendom by exaggerating barriers between Christians and Muslims, but also within Christendom allowing false theology to develop without reference to the greater reality. Aquinas challenged this early on, but none seemed willing to follow[11] and we reap the consequences today as Christians face the same unsettling problems relating to Muslims. True Christian thinking must accept graciously (not grudgingly) the reality of religious pluralism, the existence of good outside of the church, and authentic dialogue.[12]
Seeking security in numbers is a tempting but illegitimate motivation for crusade, forcible conversion, or even for evangelism. Most people like supporting a winning team, and many measure the success and validity of a religion by the number of adherents or growth rate ñ Muslims especially.[13] Thus many Muslims in Asia or Africa push for officially Islamic states governed by Shariíah and Christians could try to impose their worldview or react violently against encroaching Shariíah. This brings conflict but caused more by insecurity, ignorance, mutual distrust and fear than mere religious disagreement. Ramachandra suggests the reason immigrants to Western Europe define themselves in increasingly Islamic terms may be a ìresponse of fear engendered by growing racist attacks, employment discrimination and social alienationî.[14] Possibly such an inferiority complex twinned with the corrupting influence of the military and cultural might of the Roman Empire made Western Christians forget Jesusí teaching on power. ìThe power that lay at the heart of Godís kingdom was not the self-assertive power of pagan rulers, but the power of self-giving service. It was power to love people, even oneís enemies, to the point of dying for them.î[15]
Facing religious conflict, Christians and others could choose to avoid or crusade against others, or deny differences, secularise and assimilate into a global monoculture. Avoidance, whether enforced from within religious communities or by the state (a religious apartheid) might remove inter-religious contact. But, likely an impossible retrograde step, it avoids tackling the cause ñ the corrupt human heart ñ denies reality, thwarts enrichment through multiculturalism.
While the gospels show such segregation enacted by Jewish religious leaders, Jesus boldly broke such social conventions mixing with the social and religious untouchables ñ tax-collectors,[16] prostitutes[17] and even Samaritans[18] and Gentiles.[19] This actually provoked conflict with the leaders of his own people whose comfortable boundaries he challenged. Christians must be prepared to face similar confrontations from within the church in order to engage with non-believers as Christ did. (Perhaps today Jesus might tell a parable about a ëGood Muslimí[20] to wake up complacent and rebellious Christians.) So then Christians must find a creative way other than withdrawal of living with unbelievers ñ how to be distinctive salt and light in the whole earth.[21] That is the only hope for our fractured world, and necessary obedience to Godís command through Jesus and the Spirit to go into all nations.[22]
Some suggest resisting competing ideologies even with physical violence: ìI believe that Western civilization must hold together and that we must support each otherÖ Israel finds itself on the front lines of this war. It needs the help of its sister civilization,Ö America and Europe. It needs the help of the Christian world.î[23] Violent confrontation or ëcrusadeí, whether by word or deed has often marked inter-religious interactions. Old Testament passages might support this approach, though in practice the Israelites mostly assimilated with or avoided their pagan neighbours. Their post-Exilic one-off instruction to annihilate pre-existing Canaanite peoples was to protect Israel from religious compromise undermining their necessary distinctiveness.[24] However, Godís foundational Covenant with Abraham[25] promised that ìall peoples on earth will be blessed through you.î which would be impossible if his descendents were to annihilate absolutely every other people. Clearly the provisions for treating aliens kindly[26] show God wants his people to welcome outsiders, even if they do not give up their cultural or religious identity to become Jewish.
Several times Jesus indicated a significant paradigm shift in the Kingdom of God away from Jewish ethno-centricity and away from conflict. He shared fellowship even with Roman soldiers and other Gentiles and he rebuked his disciples who were eager for instant judgement on Samaritans who rejected Jesus.[27] Instead Jesus called his followers to be peace-makers,[28] to eschew retaliation but suffer insult and injustice personally and to forgive and pray for persecutors rather than bear grudges and exact or even demand revenge[29]. Persecution for Christ appears to be the Christianís badge of honour rather than apparent victory for oneís religious cause. This flies against all sinful human nature and absolutely contradicts Islamís code of honour. But Christians must rest assured that God does not need humans to defend his honour, as Muslims would believe. Rather, Paul argues, ìGodís name is blasphemed among the Gentiles because of youî[30] when Christians disobey and act in worldly ways instead of living ìsuch good lives among the pagans that, though they accuse you of doing wrong, they may see your good deeds and glorify God on the day he visits us.î[31] Peter tried at first by human violence to defend God the Son, but learned later the suffering Messiah set him an example: ìWhen they hurled their insults at him, he did not retaliate; when he suffered, he made no threats. Instead he enrusted himself to him who judges justly.î[32] This meekness (not weakness but controlled strength) will appear just as foolish and just a stumbling-block to non-Christians today as it did then, but ìto those whom God has called [from any race or religious background], Christ the power of God and the wisdom of God.î[33] The overwhelming message of the Bible is that ìthough we live in the world, we do not wage war as the world does.î[34]
Christians may not separate themselves completely from unbelievers (whether secular or of another faith), and may not crusade violently against other religions, but cannot allow ourselves to be absorbed into some global secular monoculture, and need not fear domination by other religions. Christians utilise spiritual, not physical weapons,[35] are called to be distinctive in the world, not causing unnecessary offence,[36] not fearing humans who can only kill the body but in everything fearing ìthe One who can destroy both soul and body in hellî[37] and following his agenda. Jesusí initial call to follow led to taking out a bold, oft-rejected message.[38]
A truly Christian reaction to individuals and groups from other religions must carefully purge itself of worldly and sinful motives like greed, lust, pride etc. mentioned earlier. Following Christ some conflict seems inevitable with those who resist or fear contact with unbelievers. The Christian message and life may be incomprehensible to and misunderstood by unbelievers. Non-retaliation may lead to humiliation, apparent defeat and even death. Primary loyalty must be shifted from self, tribe, oneís own religious group or nation, to Christ and to others.
Hiebert observes that belief systems (epistemological positions) significantly affect our attitudes toward non-Christian religions.[39] Idealists and naÔve realists seek to radically displace non-Christian customs, beliefs and rituals and of necessity ìtake a combative approach to other religionsî. Instrumentalists ìsee all religions as usefulÖ Christianity is not uniqueÖhelping people solve their life problems is central.î Clearly Hiebert favours a ëcritical realistí position which avoids either extreme, affirming Christianity as unique, holding to biblical revelation and to absolutes and rejecting relativism whilst recognising that conversion involves not merely a change in knowledge, but ìa change of allegiance in which Christ is accepted as Lord and the centre of oneís life.î[40] Jesus actually condemned the Jewish religious leadersí zeal for making proselytes,[41] caring only for cultural and cultic externals rather than true godliness.
Dialogue[42] is essential to genuine mission, crucial role for alleviating conflict. ìMissionaries aren't quite like crusaders - they don't convert through conquest, they have to persuadeÖ taking part in a conversation between cultures. Missionaries have very often been the way we in Western Europe came to know the rest of the world, and the way the rest of the world came to know us.î[43] Christians are humbly unashamed of Godís good news revealed to (not invented by) them. But some deride dialogue as ìa covert attempt at evangelization, while others call it the betrayal of mission.î[44] However genuine conversation with people of other religions is essential to really understand their belief systems and deepest desires. Ariarajah rightly observes its helpful foundation on the basic unity of all human beings, but to avoid naivety, we must also recognise the basic sin of all human beings. Christians may be challenged to discover how the gospel applies to and is sufficient for different people and different situations. Dialogue may remind us that God is no tribal deity, so no one culture ñ not even Christians ñ can monopolise him. Christians may need to expand their own horizons and the horizons of others through dialogue to discover Godís revealed purpose for humanity in the present age and in eternity. So Muslims may need to be challenged to look beyond mere ëguidanceí to lively reconciliation with God. But in all this Christians must relate lovingly to other people, not just faiths. Inter-personal dialogue is considerably more valuable than abstract inter-faith dialogue.
There are many New Testament examples and warnings of inter-religious and cross-cultural conflict, mission and dialogue. Peter had to be persuaded to accept Cornelius the far off Gentile as being one who God could love enough to save. Cornelius still needed to hear about Jesus, and from a human missionary, but God showed his sovereignty arranging every detail. Christians today need to be watchful for how God is moving in individualsí lives, in nations and other people groups to prepare them for the revitalising good news of Jesus. Paul explains how Christís death has broken down the wall of hostility not only between humans and God, but between divided humanity too.[45] However this is only fully realised in the new creation.[46]
Jesusí approach to Jewish-Samaritan relations could inform Christians regarding Muslims; in both situations the opposing groups share many similarities, but sharply disagree over key aspects of religious life and cannot imagine peaceful co-existence. Their segregated communities live in mutual condemnation. Jesus pointed the Samaritan woman to himself as satisfying all spiritual thirst, identifying the inadequacies of both Samaritan and Jewish religious understanding. He acknowledged Samaritans as capable of good,[47] but knowing their faith to be insufficient in Godís wider plan, he sent his apostles to Samaria with the good news after his death and resurrection. But some Samaritans clearly rejected Jesus, reflecting the prejudice the Jews expressed toward them. Christians share many key concepts and values with Muslims, but cannot conceal fundamental differences regarding the nature of God as Trinity, his self-revelation, and the person of Jesus Christ. Just as Jesus broke social taboos to dialogue with unbelievers, Christians may stir resentment from their own churches in reaching out to Muslims. Good intentions might be met with stony rejection, but the Christian response is not to call down immediate judgement,[48] nor to keep quiet, but to persevere and perhaps just go elsewhere.
Dismissing ëavoidance relationsí, crusade, or assimilation, Christians must recognise and expose the concealed sinful motivations of greed, pride, lust, envy and fear in both Christians and non-Christians involved in inter-religious conflict. We will have to learn how to ìlove your neighbour as yourselfî when faced with irreconcilable differences and murderous neighbours. Christians must repent the illegitimate mingling of force with Christian ëmissioní, whether in crusades, by ëConquistadorsí or economic force in ëdeveloping countriesí. Recently Christians in Cambodia, China and elsewhere have demonstrated this humble, costly Christ-focussed discipleship.[49] Dialogical Mission is vital for those within and without the church. Comfortable Western Christians must learn from Augustine, Aquinas and non-Western Christians who have already faced pluralismís challenges and opportunities outside European Christendom. And Ramachandra passionately believes that ìthe distinctive message of Christianity concerning the uniqueness of Jesus Christ actually provides a basis for a truly democratic and multicultural society.î[50]
Canadian Society of Muslims, Muslim Population Statistics on http://muslim-canada.org/muslimstats.html on 28th May 2004
Chang, Curtis Engaging Unbelief: A Captivating Strategy from Augustine & Aquinas, Leicester: IVP Apollos, 2000
Cooper, Anne Ishmael my Brother, London: Evangelical Missionary Alliance/MARC Europe, 1985
Cormack, Don Killing Fields Living Fields, Crowborough: Monarch Publications, 1997
Cragg Kenneth The Christ and the Faiths, London: SPCK, 1986
Doyle, Mark Poverty behind Nigeriaís Violence, BBC News Online http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3730109.stm on 21st May 2004.
Hiebert, Paul G Anthropological Reflections on Missiological Issues, Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1994
Huntington, Samuel P The Clash of Civilizations: And the Remaking of World Order, Free Press, 2002
International Bible Society Holy Bible, New International Version, London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1984
King David High School (Manchester) http://www.kdhs.org.uk/history/as/as_unit3/kampf.htm on 28th May 2004
Moucarry, Chawkat Faith to Faith: Christianity & Islam in dialogue, Leicester: IVP, 2001
Parkinson, Justin Learning to survive, BBC News Online http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/3122922.stm (19/9/03) on 28th May 2004
Rommen, Edward and Harold Netland (eds), Christianity and the Religions, Pasadena: Evangelical Missiological Society/William Carey Library, 1995
Ramachandra, Vinoth Faiths In Conflict? Christian Integrity in a
Multicultural World, Downerís Grove: IVP, 1999
Gods that Fail, Carlisle: Paternoster Press,
1996
Samartha, S J (ed) Faith in the midst of the faiths, Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1997
A 2500 word essay on a topic relating to contemporary mission, demonstrating an understanding of how the topic is viewed by some representatives of contemporary Western and non-Western churches and mission groupings and (where appropriate) behavioural scientists.
pluralisation ñ issues of tolerance, diversity, peaceful coexistence, conversion/proselytism
How can Christians respond Christianly to theological, cultural & religious conflict in a pluralising world? Views on living with pluralisation from contemporary Western and non-Western churches and mission groupings.
3140 words ñ must kill 400 at least
Pluralisation:
example background:
scenarios:
various aspects of pluralisation
Chang, Curtis Engaging Unbelief: A Captivating Strategy from Augustine & Aquinas, Leicester: IVP Apollos, 2000
David Smith looks at:
MAC pluralisation
no jew/greek/sythian/slave/free ñ and ppl from all nations and cultures
Each church can learn from plural experiences: eg Jewish sought Messiah (by miraculous signs), Greeks looking for lord (by philosophy/wisdom/eloquence)
Philip Pullman ëattack on religioní and denial of God existing or having any right over us ñ denial of the goodness of God. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/programmes/belief/scripts/philip_pullman.html
[1] Kenneth Cragg, The Christ and the Faiths, 5
[2] Curtis Chang, Engaging Unbelief, 9
[3] Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations: And the Remaking of World Order, discussed in Ramachandra, Faiths In Conflict?, 13ff
[4] Curtis Chang, back cover
[5] Anne Cooper, Ishmael my Brother, introduction, 2
[6] Justin Parkinson, Learning to survive, BBC News http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/3122922.stm (19/9/03)
[7] Mark Doyle, Poverty behind Nigeriaís Violence, BBC News http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3730109.stm (19/5/03)
[8] King David High School, Manchester, http://www.kdhs.org.uk/history/as/as_unit3/kampf.htm on 28th May 2004
[9] Kenneth Cragg, The Christ and the Faiths, 315
[10] MAC, just after the pictures
[11] Chang, 140
[12] Gordon T Smith, Religions and the Bible, p.19 in Edward Rommen and Harold Netland (ed), Christianity and the Religions
[13] For example, the Canadian Society of Muslims, Muslim Population Statistics on http://muslim-canada.org/muslimstats.html (28th May 2004)
[14] Vinoth Ramachandra, Faiths in Conflict, 18
[15] Vinoth Ramachandra, Gods that Fail, 198
[16] Luke 15:1 the purpose of the ëlostí parables
[17] Luke 7, the sinful woman
[18] John 4, the Samaritan woman at the well, Luke 17:16 the Samaritan leper
[19] Luke 7:1-10 the centurion, Matthew 15:21-28 / Mark 7:24-30 Canaanite woman
[20] Luke 10:25-37, the Good Samaritan
[21] Matthew 5:13-16
[22] Matthew 28:18-20, Acts 1:8
[23] cited on http://www.pastornet.net.au/jmm/articles/2812.htm on 28th May 2004, from a lecture presented at the Feast of Tabernacles Celebration 2001 by Professor Moshe Sharon, former director of the World Zionist Organisation branch in Johannesburg, South Africa and currently lecturing as professor of Islamic History at the Hebrew University.
[24] Deuteronomy 7
[25] Genesis 12:1-3
[26] Exodus 22:21 and many others
[27] Luke 9:52-56
[28] Matthew 5:9
[29] Matthew 5:10-12, 38-48
[30] Romans 2:24
[31] 1 Peter 2:12
[32] 1 Peter 2:23
[33] 1 Corinthians 1:24
[34] 2 Corinthians 10:3
[35] Ephesians 6:10-18
[36] 1 Peter 2:20
[37] Matthew 10:28
[38] Matthew 4:19
[39] Paul G Hiebert, Anthropological Reflections on Missiological Issues, 48
[40] All these quotes are from Hiebert, 49
[41] Matthew 23:13-15
[42] eg Chawkat Moucarry, Faith to Faith: Christianity & Islam in dialogue
[43] Edward Stourton, BBC Radio 4: The Missionaries ñ Ghana (broadcast 14th June 2003), http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/programmes/misc/missionaries1.html transcript as at 28th May 2004
[44] S Wesley Ariarajah, The understanding and practice of dialogue: its nature, purpose and variations, p 54 in S J Samartha (ed) Faith in the midst of the faiths
[45] Ephesians 2:11-18
[46] Revelation 7:9
[47] Luke 10:25-37, the Good Samaritan
[48] Luke 9:52-56 a Samaritan village rejects Jesus
[49] eg Don Cormack, Killing Fields Living Fields
[50] Vinoth Ramachandra, Faiths In Conflict? Christian Integrity in a Multicultural World, cover