Anyone who lives and works outside of their own culture faces extra pressures; cross-cultural Christian workers are no exception. Many are increasingly concerned about missionary attrition: when pressures become unbearable and work is hampered or curtailed. Many practical strategies have been suggested for individual missionaries, sending churches[1] and mission agencies to help missionaries not merely survive but thrive in these adverse conditions. Theological reflection in the literature is significantly rarer but more valuable long-term. God himself is the instigator and master of mission; his word is not only the content of mission but itself inspires and equips missionaries; the Holy Spirit empowers and sustains mission, and Jesus is the exemplary incarnational cross-cultural missionary.
Too Valuable to Lose[2] describes missionary attrition as an iceberg: while some aspects are immediately obvious, many reasons for missionaries leaving effective service are hidden because of shame, or lack of coordinated research. ReMAP[3] was designed to survey causes of attrition globally, including missionaries from New Sending Countries (Africa, Latin AmericaĶ) and Old Sending Countries (North America, EuropeĶ). It aimed to quantify anecdotal evidence about causes of missionaries leaving their mission agency. Foyle also surveyed occupational stress[4], investigating significant pressures regardless of whether they caused premature return.
Donovan describes stress as "the normal protective response of the body to a perceived significant threat to the status quo"[5]. Ajith Fernando considers some stress a necessary part of Christian service: "dying for my people"[6], though urges avoidance of unbiblical stress from wrong motives or methods[7]. Major stressors include adapting to a new language and culture, health issues, new roles/work, spiritual warfare, financial struggles, family problems and difficult relationships with co-workers, friends and family. Culture stress is usually more intense at first when there are more new things to adapt to, but missionaries face ongoing stress which must be handled positively. Foyle, Taylor, O'Donnell and others offer general strategies to deal with stress and many particular solutions for different stressors.
Perseverance continuing to live and work despite stress is important, but the ultimate goal is to sustain effective life and work. Some stay who should change or leave, destructively refusing to work together effectively with others. About one such couple, a pastor wrote "They should have become an attrition statistic but didn't"[8]. He considered their useful service finished long before they returned home. Every missionary as any Christian should live an effective life marked by the fruit of the spirit[9], their identity primarily as a child of God[10], not just defined by their job. Others' views on whether your work is effective are important to consider.
Much member care literature intends to help missionaries and agencies anticipate, avoid and analyse stressful situations carefully. Anticipation allows preparation, which can reduce the surprise of stress and the helpless felt by stressed missionaries[11]. It is essential that candidates know beforehand the reality of mission workĶmissionaries were not taught that suffering is part and parcel of a believers lifeĶ I thought missionary work was a bed of roses. But soon in the mission field I learned that I was wrong.[12] Others note the importance of tempering the impressions gained through short-term experience with an accurate overall picture of the realities of missionary lifeĶ Unrealistic outlook may contribute to early disillusionment and attrition in short-termers who become career missionaries[13]. In fact good short-term programmes can do some of this. Potential problems which could increase subsequent stress (relationship problems, moral weaknessesĶ) may be identified in a careful selection process. However, Foyle warns "not all kinds of depressive illnesses are the same, so predicting possible future health risks may not always be possible." Cool analysis and delaying significant decisions can temper rash decision-making when faced with major stresses[14].
"The best re-entry preparation starts before you leave home."[15], and for continued effective life and work missionaries need a strong support system established before leaving. First, this means a mature, healthy relationship with God and sound spiritual disciplines established which will continue under pressure[16]. Pirolo explains the vital need for moral, logistics, financial, prayer, communication and re-entry support primarily from missionaries' sending churches and friends[17].
Language and cultural adaptation sap much energy. With new physical, social and bureaucratic environments to master, many "find it takes us most of our time just to live."[18] Physical and psychological health problems may cause missionaries significant stress as their body adapts to a new environment. "Excessive worry disturbs the immune system." and lack of sleep harms working and spiritual life[19]. Behind 'unpreventable' health issues often lurks unresolved stress. If faced with corruption and inefficiency, Christian workers from more developed countries may become very negative about the new environment, possibly harming relationships with local people as a result. Missionaries need much patience and understanding and must learn to value relationships above tasks or achievement.
Tentmakers keen to find a gospel opening into otherwise 'closed' countries face the added pressure of personal integrity. When asked directly if they are missionaries how should they reply? James Tebbe suggests not only is good cover and a clever answer required but Christians taking secular jobs overseas must avoid telling some they are a missionary, and others that they are not. Playing at being a "missionary undercover agent" creates unnecessary extra tensions. "The issue of integrity arises when missionaries feel they must misrepresent who they are and what they are really doing."[20] Paul advocates absolute transparency for both missionaries and 'tentmakers'[21].
Foyle's own research shows the truth of 1 Corinthians 7: "married people have many more problems than singles."[22] Families cause significant stress, particularly regarding childrens education or when parents oppose missionaries' work[23]. The children and marriage relationship must come before the work[24]. But missionaries need to balance the biblical call to give up even families for the gospel's sake[25], with the command to honour and provide for one's family[26]. Mission agencies often help, and a supportive church family the hundreds of parents, children etc promised in Mark 10:29-30 must substitute for an unsupportive unbelieving natural family.
Work may cause great pressure, especially when missionaries are expected to do another job than what they prepared for. Especially for task-oriented western missionaries, unrealistic (wrong) expectations may cause great stress, but the opposite extreme must also be avoided where missionaries "fail to recognise the mismatch of job and talentĶ and validate ineffectiveness"[27], content just to survive. Delegation and learning culturally acceptable ways to refuse work seem essential.
Thoughtful, biblical theologies of humanity, culture and mission may help a missionary face and deal graciously with challenges caused by cultural differences. No culture made of sinful humans as they are is perfect, but none beyond redemption. The missionary must recognise that Christ transforms culture and try to assess the Christian response required.
The Pastoral Epistles and Acts provide considerable strong biblical teaching on endurance for missionaries. The missionary Paul bore many kinds of stress, but finished well. Was that because of his superior psychological strength? No. Whether chained in a Philippian jail[28], shipwrecked in the Mediterranean[29], enduring numerous other trials and dangers[30], opposed in fruitful ministry[31], abandoned by all friends and surrounded by enemies[32] he could sing joyfully, confident that "the Lord will rescue me from every evil attack and will bring me safely to his heavenly kingdom."[33]. He "learned the secret of being content in any and every situation."[34] For God had assured him and every missionary: "My grace is sufficient for you, for my power is made perfect in weakness."[35]
Similarly the prophets were unimpressive people called by God for impossibly great tasks[36]. Moses, David, Elijah, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and many others spoke God's word within and beyond their own culture. 'Third Culture Kid' Moses was called to international diplomacy with an impossible tyrant, and then to leadership of a whole rebellious nation. A striking call to service did not alone sustain them. Through their stress and anguish we see that absolute reliance on and trust in the living, loving God was vital. God can be trusted. When everyone is grumbling against you[37], God is near to call to. That the Spirit of Jesus is ever with them[38] should bring great relief to missionaries feeling helpless in stressful situations.
Donovan, Kath Growing through Stress, New South Wales: Aquila Press, 1991
Foyle, Marjory Honourably Wounded: Stress among Christian Workers (revised ed), London: Monarch Books, 2001
Gateley, IM and JD My Reasonable Service? Practical Suggestions for the Christian Working Overseas Durham: Pentland Press, 1995
Jordan, Peter Re-entry: Making the Transition from Missions to Life at Home, Seattle: Youth With A Mission Publishing, 1992
O'Donnell, Kelly Doing Member Care Well: Perspectives and Practices From Around the World, Pasadena: World Evangelical Alliance Missions Commission, 2002
Pirolo, Niel Serving as Senders: How to care for your missionaries, Carlisle: OM, 1997
Taylor, William (ed) Too Valuable to Lose: Exploring the causes of missionary attrition, Singapore: WEF Missions Commission, 1997
Tebbe, James For tentmakers: a matter of integrity, in EMQ Vol 25, No 1 (January 1989)
[1] Neil Pirolo, Serving as Senders
[2] William Taylor, Too Valuable to Lose (TVTL), 3
[3] Jonathan Lewis and Peter Brierley, in Taylor TVTL, 77ff
[4] Marjory Foyle, Honourably Wounded, 87
[5] Kath Donovan, Growing through Stress, 44
[6] Ajith Fernando Joy and Sacrifice in the Lord, in Kelly O'Donnell, Doing Member Care Well: Perspectives and Practices From Around the World, 224
[7] Ajith Fernando, 229
[8] Bill Schmidt in Taylor TVTL, 314
[9] Galatians 5:22,23
[10] 1 John 1:3:1,2
[11] Foyle, 28
[12] Ekstrm, Bertil, The Selection Process and the Issue of Attrition, in Taylor, TVTL, 191
[13] Kath Donovan and Ruth Kyors, Reflections on Attrition in Career Missionaries: A Generational Perspective into the Future, in Taylor, TVTL, 55
[14] Foyle, 80 (really throughout the whole book)
[15] Peter Jordan, Re-entry: Making the transition from missions to life at home, 139
[16] Ajith Fernando, 224, Foyle and many others
[17] Neil Pirolo, Serving as Senders, 11ff
[18] Foyle, 147
[19] IM and JD Gateley, My Reasonable Service? 75
[20] James Tebbe, For tentmakers: a matter of integrity, in EMQ Vol 25, No 1 (January 1989), 51
[21] 2 Corinthians 12:13-18, 1 Thessalonians 2:3-9
[22] Foyle, 147
[23] Foyle, 134-5
[24] Foyle, 98
[25] Mark 8:34ff, 10:29-30
[26] Mark 7:9-13, 1 Timothy 5:8
[27] Paul McKaughan, Missionary Attrition: Defining the Problem in Taylor, TVTL, 21
[28] Acts 16
[29] Acts 27
[30] 2 Corinthians 11:23-29
[31] 2 Corinthians 16:25
[32] 2 Timothy 4:9-16
[33] 2 Timothy 4:18
[34] Philippians 4:12-13
[35] 2 Corinthians 12:9
[36] Jeremiah 1:5-10
[37] Exodus 15:24-25 and many other times!
[38] Matthew 28:20